.21 
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^ 

University  of  California  •  Berkeley 


P  R  E  E  literature  front 


Union.  Kerry    Building. 


4flT    FRANCISCO,   C 

Publicity  Series 


National  Irrigation 
Congress 


Bulletin  No.  4 

Guide  to 

Irrigation  Practice  on  the 
Pacific  Coast 


Issued  by  the 

Publicity  Committee  of  the  Fifteenth  National 
Irrigation  Congress 

SEPTEMBER,  1907 


GUIDE  TO  IRRIGATION  PRACTICE 

ON   THE 

PACIFIC  COAST 

BY 
*SAMUEL  FORTIER,  C.  E.,  D.  Sc. 


INTRODUCTION. 


At  the  Irrigation  Congress  held  in  Boise,  Idaho,  in  1906,  a 
committee  was  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  disseminating  practi- 
cal and  scientific  information  concerning  irrigation.  This  com- 
mittee was  composed  as  follows : 

Samuel  Fortier,  Chairman Berkeley,  California. 

Frank  C.  Goudy Denver,  Colorado. 

Dwight  B.  Heard Phoenix,  Arizona. 

F.  H.  Ray Helena,  Montana 

C.  R.  Reeves Ely,  Nevada. 

L.  G.  Sinnard,  Secretary.  . .  .San  Francisco,  California. 

In  planning  the  work  to  be  undertaken,  it  was  decided  to  issue 
two  sets  of  pamphlets.  The  first  set  was  to  consist  of  reliable  in- 
formation concerning  lands  open  to  settlement  in  various  irrigated 
districts  of  the  arid  region,  and  the  second  was  to  be  prepared 
with  a  view  to  aiding  inexperienced  settlers  on  irrigated  farms. 
Bulletins  Nos.  I,  2,  and  3,  of  the  first  series,  have  been  printed, 
and  are  being  distributed,  and  this  publication,  which  the  writer 
was  requested  to  prepare,  is  the  first  of  the  second  series. 

Reliable  information  concerning  irrigation  is  eagerly  sought 
for  at  present.  Extensive  areas  of  desert  and  low-producing  lands 
are  being  rapidly  reclaimed  under  the  agencies  of  the  Reclamation 
Service,  State  governments  and  private  enterprise.  The  necessary 
result  of  making  these  large  investments,  and  the  sole  object  of 
the  government  works  is  to  establish  prosperous  rural  homes  in 
the  now  sparsely  settled  arable  lands  of  the  West.  The  oppor- 


*  In  charge  of  Irrigation  and  Drainage  Investigations   in   the  Pacific   District, 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Department  of  Ag-riculture. 

'.   3 


tunities  which  a  fertile  soil,  an  agreeable  climate,  and  an  abundant 
water  supply  present  to  industrious  farmers  are  certain  to  be  taken 
advantage  of,  resulting  in  a  large  influx  of  settlers.  It  is  chiefly 
for  the  benefit  of  this  class  that  this  Guide  has  been  prepared. 

The  limited  space  available  will  not  admit  of  anything  like  a 
full  discussion  of  important  topics,  but  references  have  been  made 
to  other  publications,  which  the  reader  may  consult.  Many  of 
these  are  the  publications  of  the  Irrigation  and  Drainage  branch 
of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. Where  these  are  referred  to  herein,  the  abbreviation  "O.  E. 
S."  is  used.  These  bulletins  may  be  had  on  application  to  Dr.  A. 
C.  True,  Director  O.  E.  S.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Owing  to  the  somewhat  wide  difference  in  climate,  products, 
and  irrigation  practice  between  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific 
Coast  States,  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  adapt  the  first  publica- 
tion of  this  series  to  Pacific  Coast  conditions. 


HOW  TO  SELECT  AN  IRRIGATED  FARM. 

The  chief  points  to  be  considered  in  selecting  an  irrigated 
farm  are  a  healthful  and  agreeable  climate,  the  adaptability  of  the 
location  to  grow  profitable  crops,  proximity  to  railroads,  towns 
and  markets,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  a  plentiful  supply  of  water, 
and  good  drainage.  On  the  Pacific  Coast  the  winters  are  mild. 
January,  February  and  March  are  rainy  months,  and  the  long  sum- 
mers are  dry.  Near  the  Coast  the  climate  in  summer  is  cool,  while 
farther  inland  it  is  warm. 

One  of  the  most  marked  advantages  favoring  the  man  Vvho 
improves  an  irrigated  farm  is  its  probable  increase  in  value. 
When  a  4O-acre  tract  can  be  purchased  for  $3,000,  and  in  ten  years 
increased  in  value  to  $10,000,  the  owner  is  making  good  profits  in 
addition  to  the  crops  harvested.  In  order  to  reap  the  benefits  of 
good  harvests  and  an  increase  in  farm  values,  the  crops  chosen 
for  a  given  location  must  be  those  best  adapted  to  soil  and  climate. 

Perhaps  the  best  test  of  raw  land  in  its  desert  state  is  the 
native  vegetation  it  supports.  Sage-brush,  buffalo  grass  and  cac- 
tus indicate  good  land  easily  worked  and  well  drained.  Ink  weed, 
salt  bush  and  salt  grass  indicate  heavier  soil,  apt  to  bake  when 
wet,  and  charged  with  more  or  less  alkali. 

The  hardpan  of  the  Atlantic  States  is  not  found  in  the  arid 
region,  but  over  limited  areas  of  the  Pacific  Coast  States  there  is 
found  a  hard  calcareous  sheet  of  varying  thickness,  usually  from 

4 


two  to  five  feet  below  the  surface.  The  presence  of  this  hard  layer 
can  be  readily  detected  by  a  steel  probe  or  a  soil  auger.  In  orchards 
and  vineyards  one  can  not  count  on  utilizing  the  top  six  inches  of 
soil,  as  it  is  needed  as  a  sort  of  blanket  to  protect  the  moisture 
beneath.  The  roots  of  vines  and  trees  frequently  penetrate  to  the 
eighth  and  tenth  foot,  and  it  is  important  to  select  a  farm  with  a 
deep  subsoil  of  suitable  composition  and  texture. 

The  land  should  also  be  well  drained.  If  ground  water  rises 
near  the  surface  injurious  salts  are  likely  to  appear,  and  the  action 
of  both  will  greatly  lessen  the  value  of  the  land.  This  is  the 
greatest  risk  involved  in  buying  irrigated  farms.  The  great 
majority  of  irrigated  farms  have  been  successful ;  the  small  minor- 
ity have  been  ruined  by  lack  of  drainage. 


OBTAINING  A  WATER  SUPPLY. 

The  physical  source  of  water  for  irrigation,  whether  diverted 
from  streams  by  gravity  ditches,  stored  in  reservoirs  near  or  re- 
mote from  the  parent  stream,  or  obtained  from  flowing  wells  or  by 
pumping,  is  of  little  interest  to  the  irrigator  except  as  the  nature 
of  the  source  affects  his  supply  in  dry  periods,  and  as  it  affects 
the  cost  of  water.  In  general,  a  gravity  water  supply  from  streams 
is  cheapest,  but  it  diminishes  after  the  winter  rains  and  as  the  dry 
season  advances.  Stored  water,  while  it  is  more  expensive,  is 
available  whenever  wanted.  Water  raised  by  pumping  usually 
costs  several  times  as  much,  but  pumping  is  justified  by  the 
advantages  of  individual  supply,  proximity  to  the  land  watered, 
and  the  fact  that  it  draws  on  an  unappropriated  source  of  water 
after  the  surface  streams  have  been  exhausted. 

The  day  of  the  individual  farm  ditch  is  past,  and  water  "for 
irrigation  must  now  be  obtained  from  a  canal  operated  either  as  a 
co-operative  enterprise  of  irrigators,  as  a  ditch  company  selling 
water  at  a  profit,  as  an  irrigation  district  having  power  to  compel 
owners  of  affected  lands  to  join,  or  under  State  or  Government 
reclamation  works  which  contemplate  the  ultimate  ownership  and 
control  of  the  works  by  the  settlers  thereunder. 

Under  Government  projects  the  actual  cost  of  the  enterprise, 
including  ten  years'  maintenance,  is  assessed  against  the  lands 
benefited,  and  collected  in  ten  annual  installments  without  interest, 
the  saving  in  interest  being  the  principal  advantage  to  the  settler. 
Eventually  such  works  are  to  become  the  property  of  the  irrigators. 
Such  projects  are  subject  to  the  same  general  rules  of  appropria- 


tion,  in  obtaining  their  water  supply,  as  govern  the  legal  rights  of 
any  other  user  of  water,  but  owing  to  the  size  and  scope  of  Gov- 
ernment works  facilities  for  storage  are  usually  obtained,  making  a 
continuous  supply  through  the  season  certain. 

Under  Carey  act  enterprises,  of  which  there  are  several  in 
Oregon,  a  construction  company  contracts  with  the  State  to  build 
works  and  colonize  the  lands,  charging  the  settler  a  pre-agreed 
rate  per  acre.  Under  the  careful  supervision  of  the  State  Engineer 
such  works  have  in  many  cases  solved  the  irrigation  problem  sat- 
isfactorily, as  the  settler  is  relieved  from  the  perils  of  incompetent 
organization  and  management,  and  is  not  financially  responsible 
beyond  the  contract  price  of  the  land  and  water.  It  is  provided  in 
the  act  that  the  ownership  of  the  works  shall  pass  to  the  irrigators 
under  them  after  a  certain  part  of  the  lands  are  paid  for. 

An  irrigation  district  is  theoretically  the  most  desirable  form 
of  enterprise,  since  it  furnishes  works  at  cost,  and  adjusts  assess- 
ments like  taxes.  The  chief  danger  lies  in  the  lack  of  skilled  or- 
ganizers among  farmers,  and  in  the  difficulty  of  floating  securities. 
As  an  education  in  co-operation,  and  as  a  promoter  of  strong  com- 
munity spirit,  the  district  form  of  enterprise  has  proved  itself  in- 
valuable. The  best  districts  are  as  strong  financially  as  good 
municipal  works,  and  can  sell  5  per  cent  or  6  per  cent  bonds  quite 
as  easily. 

Under  works  owned  by  corporations  water  is  delivered  at  an 
annual  rate,  and  usually  only  to  such  lands  as  have  a  water  right 
attached.  Water  rights  are  usually  sold  by  the  ditch  company  for 
stated  parcels  of  land,  to  cover  the  cost  of  the  works,  at  the  same 
time  that  contracts  to  deliver  water  are  signed.  The  terms  of  the 
contract  seldom  guarantee  delivery  of  water,  so  the  important 
elements  fixing  the  value  of  a  water  right  or  a  water  contract  are 
the  supply  available  for  the  canal,  and  the  condition  of  the  works 
for  delivering  it  to  users.  The  settler  ought  to  assure  himself  on 
these  points  which  are  too  often  taken  for  granted. 

THE  VALUE  OF  LAND  AND  WATER  IN  THE  PACIFIC 

COAST  STATES. 

The  value  of  land  depends  mainly  on  the  water  supply,  the 
improvements  and  the  crops  that  can  be  grown.  Several  million 
acres  of  grain  land  can  be  purchased  in  the  San  Joaquin,  Sacra- 
mento and  Willamette  Valleys  for  an  average  price  of  about  $40 
per  acre.  When  this  land  is  irrigated,  and  seeded  to  alfalfa  or 
planted  to  orchards,  vines  and  other  special  crops,  its  value  is  in- 

6 


creased  many  fold.  Good  alfalfa  land  sells  readily  for  $100,  and 
bearing  vineyards  and  deciduous  orchards  are  usually  worth  $350 
to  $500  an  acre.  Citrus  orchards  and  in  a  few  cases  apple  orchards 
reach  a  value  of  $1000  or  more.  Where  localities  have  been  found 
especially  adapted  to  a  particular  crop,  raw  lands  in  their  vicinity 
are  high.  This  is  true  of  unimproved  lands  near  Riverside  and 
Redlands,  famed  for  their  oranges,  of  Orange  County  for  its  wal- 
nuts, of  Fresno  County  for  its  raisins,  of  Santa  Clara  for  its  prunes, 
of  portions  of  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  Valleys  for  their 
grapes,  fruits  or  vegetables,  and  of  such  valleys  as  Pajaro,  Rogue 
River  and  Hood  River  for  their  apples.  In  time  just  as  valuable 
crops  will  be  grown  in  other  localities,  and  as  soon  as  this  fact  is 
demonstrated  it  will  enhance  the  value  of  land. 

The  cost  of  water  for  irrigation  varies  greatly  in  different  dis- 
tricts. In  Imperial  Valley  the  cost  of  a  water  right  in  any  one  of 
the  nine  mutual  water  companies  runs  from  $15  to  $25  per  acre, 
and  the  annual  charge  for  maintenance  and  operation  is  about  50 
cents  per  acre.  There  is  an  additional  charge  of  50  cents  an  acre- 
foot  payable  to  the  California  Development  Company  for  diverting 
and  conveying  the  water.  Taking  interest  at  6  per  cent  on  the 
cost  of  the  water  right,  the  total  annual  cost  to  the  farmer  using 
only  two  acre-feet  to  the  acre  would  average  $3.20  per  acre. 

In  the  citrus  belt  of  Southern  California  the  cost  of  water  is 
much  higher.  Including  interest  on  a  water  right  worth  $150  to 
$250  per  acre,  the  yearly  cost  of  water  often  exceeds  $20  per  acre. 
In  1904  under  the  two  largest  canals  at  Riverside,  orange  growers 
paid  $20.77  and  $21.85  Per  acre,  respectively,  including  interest. 

In  Fresno  County  the  annual  cost  of  water  varies  from  60 
cents  to  $1.50  per  acre. 

In  the  Modesto  and  Turlock  Irrigation  Districts,  organized 
under  the  Wright  law,  the  annual  charge  for  liquidation  and  inter- 
est on  bonds,  maintenance  and  operation  is  considerably  less  than 
$1.00  per  acre. 

In  Santa  Clara  Valley,  creek  water  is  worth  about  $2  per 
acre,  and  water  pumped  from  wells  costs  from  $5  to  $10  per  acre. 

In  Sacramento  Valley  the  Yolo  County  Consolidated  Canal 
Company  sells  water  for  $i  per  acre-foot.  About  two  acre-feet 
per  acre  are  used  each  season.  The  Butte  County  Canal  Company 
sells  water  to  lands  provided  with  a  water  right  at  a  charge  of  $i 
to  $2  per  acre  annually.  The  Orland  Irrigation  Company  charges 
$3.50  per  acre  for  lands  having  no  water  right.  The  Central  Canal 
Company  charges  $10  to  $15  per  acre  for  water  rights,  and  $i  to 
$2  annually  for  water  rental. 

7 


The  cost  of  water  in  the  Yakima  Valley  in  Washington  aver- 
ages about  $3  an  acre  annually,  including  interest  on  a  water  right. 

In  less  developed  parts  of  Eastern  Oregon,  the  annual  charge 
for  water  is  from  $i  to  $3  per  acre,  the  water  right  raising  the 
value  of  the  land  from  $8  in  the  raw  state  to  $50  or  $100. 

The  cost  of  water  under  the  various  Government  reclamation 
projects  on  the  Pacific  Coast  varies  within  wide  limits.  Specific 
information  may  be  obtained  from  Director  F.  H.  Newell,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 


THE  AMOUNT  OF  WATER  USED  IN  IRRIGATION. 

The  service  performed  by  irrigation  water  in  the  Pacific 
States,  that  is,  the  amount  used  per  acre,  has  been  ascertained  by 
the  Irrigation  and  Drainage  branch  of  the  United  States  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations,  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Elwood  Mead,  and 
the  few  examples  here  given  are  from  that  source. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  Washington  in  1904,  the  quantity  of 
water  carried  in  canals  serving  64,000  acres  was  sufficient  to  cover 
that  area  5.4  feet  deep.  The  quantity  lost  in  transit  by  seepage 
was  found  to  be  as  great  as  50  per  cent  in  some  cases,  but  aver- 
aged much  less.  The  average  depth  of  water  actually  applied  to 
crops  was  probably  between  3.5  and  4  feet  in  depth. 

In  Eastern  Oregon,  under  somewhat  similar  conditions,  but 
on  more  gravelly  soil,  water  is  habitually  applied  to  a  depth  in 
one  season  of  8  to  20  feet.  On  ordinary  soils  about  3.5  feet  in 
depth  is  the  usual  practice.  Where  winter  irrigation  only  is  avail- 
able as  much  as  6  to  8  feet  is  often  applied  in  one  prolonged  irri- 
gation. 

In  California,  water  is  used  more  economically,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions. In  1906  some  alfalfa  raisers  under  the  Stony  Creek 
Canal  near  Orland  used  from  5  to  15  feet  in  depth  on  gravelly 
soil.  When  water  was  first  used  in  Modesto  Irrigation  District  in 
1904,  the  diversion  from  the  Tuolumne  in  that  year  was  sufficient 
to  cover  the  area  irrigated  to  a  depth  of  13  feet.  Under  the  Tur- 
lock  District  in  the  same  year  the  use  was  8.3  feet  deep.  Both 
districts  now  use  far  less  water. 

In  Imperial  Valley  the  duty  of  water  under  the  various  mutual 
water  companies  averages  about  two  feet  in  depth.  This  small 
quantity  is  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  payments  for  water  are 
made  on  the  basis  of  the  measured  volume  received. 


Wherever  water  is  pumped  the  amount  used  is  small  as  a 
rule.  Under  a  large  pumping  plant  at  Lindsay  in  Tulare  County, 
the  average  duty  for  several  years  has  been  16  inches  in  depth. 
The  average  use  under  sixty  pumping  plants  in  Santa  Clara  Val- 
ley in  1904  was  13  inches  in  depth.  In  the  vicinity  of  Pomona  in 
1905  the  average  use  was  9  inches  for  citrus  fruits,  and  28  inches 
for  alfalfa. 

AMOUNT  OF  WATER  REQUIRED  IN  IRRIGATION. 

The  proper  amount  of  water  to  apply  in  one  irrigation,  the 
interval  between  irrigations,  and  the  total  quantity  required  in  any 
one  season  all  depend  on  a  large  number  of  soil,  crop  and  climatic 
conditions. 

In  light  irrigations,  three  inches  in  depth  over  the  surface 
would  be  plenty  if  it  could  be  applied  without  loss,  but  six  inches 
are  often  required.  Similarly  for  heavy  irrigations  six  inches  of 
water  over  the  surface  would,  if  it  could  be  applied  without  loss, 
moisten  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  several  feet,  but  in  practice  the 
amount  required  sometimes  exceeds  nine  inches. 

Perhaps  the  best  example  of  the  proper  use  of  water  in  irri- 
gation is  furnished  by  the  citrus  growers,  of  Southern  California. 
To  cite  a  special  case,  the  amount  of  water  applied  on  over  8000 
acres  of  citrus  orchards  under  the  Gage  Canal  near  Riverside  from 
1898  to  1904  has  averaged  25.6  inches  in  depth  over  the  surface, 
the  average  rainfall  for  the  same  period  being  7.2  inches,  making 
a  total  of  32.8  inches  each  season. 


HOW  TO  BUILD  SMALL  RESERVOIRS. 

When  the  creeks  on  the  Pacific  Coast  are  bank  full  the  soil  is 
usually  wet  from  rain,  and  later  when  the  soil  becomes  dry  and 
needs  water  there  is  little  or  none  in  the  creeks.  Under  favorable 
conditions  it  pays  to  store  a  part  of  the  flood  flow  of  creeks  for 
later  use.  It  also  pays  to  store  the  flow  from  springs  which  are 
too  small  to  make  an  irrigation  head.  A  spring  flowing  three 
miner's  inches  (34  gallons  per  minute)  will,  if  stored,  irrigate  an 
orchard  or  truck  garden  of  ten  acres. 

The  reservoir  should  be  as  near  as  possible  to  the  land  to  be 
irrigated,  and  high  enough  to  give  a  down  grade  of  at  least  a  half 
inch  to  the  rod".  In  order  to  impound  the  greatest  quantity  of 
water  at  the  least  cost,  a  site  should  be  selected  where  the  floor  of 
the  valley  is  as  flat  and  wide  as  can  be  found,  and  which  can  be 


closed  by  a  dam  at  a  narrow  point.  Some  otherwise  good  sites 
may  be  too  porous.  In  some  cases  they  can  be  lined  to  reduce 
seepage.  (See  page  27.)  Suitable  material  for  an  embankment 
must  be  available  near  the  dam  site,  and  test  holes  should  be  dug 
beneath  the  proposed  dam  to  assure  a  suitable  foundation. 

All  brush,  weeds,  turf  or  other  material  liable  to  decay  must 
be  removed  from  the  dam  site.  The  site  should  then  be  plowed 
deep  and  left  as  rough  as  possible,  so  as  to  make  a  good  bond  with 
the  material  placed  in  the  embankment.  In  all  save  the  smallest 
reservoirs  a  puddle  trench  should  be  .dug  as  an  extra  precaution 
against  leakage.  Such  a  trench  should  be  made  wide  enough  to 
admit  scraper  teams  and  should  extend  downward  until  a  safe 
impervious  stratum  is  reached.  It  should  extend  into  the  hill  at 
either  end.  Water  should  be  run  into  this  trench,  and  it  should 
then  be  backfilled  by  dumping  into  the  water,  as  shown  in  figure  i. 


The  best  material  with  which  to  fill  a  puddle  trench  is  a  mixture 
of  clay,  sand  and  gravel. 

Where  gophers  or  other  burrowing  animals  are  liable  to 
breach  the  reservoir,  some  kind  of  a  core  wall  is  necessary.  Such 
a  wall  is  placed  near  the  center  of  the  embankment,  and  may  be 
built  of  asphalt  concrete,  cement  concrete  or  rubble  masonry. 

The  outlet  for  a  reservoir  should  be  large  enough  to  give  an 
irrigation  head.  As  a  pipe  of  given  size  will  discharge  less  water 
when  the  reservoir  is  nearly  empty  than  when  full,  the  size  of  the 
outlet  is  usually  figured  for  an  average  stage  of  water.  For  small 
farm  reservoirs  a  six  or  eight  inch  pipe  will  usually  serve. 

Many  farmers  use  wooden  boxes  for  outlets,  which  is  a  mis- 
take, as  they  rot  away  in  a  few  years  and  renewal  is  expensive. 
Steel  riveted  pipe  in  lengths  of  about  20  feet  can  be  had  in  any 
size  from  3  to  72  inches,  and  when  coated  with  asphalt  will  last 
twenty-five  years.  Cast  iron  pipe  is  the  best  for  such  purposes, 
but  is  most  expensive.  Of  late  reinforced  concrete  pipe  has  to 
some  extent  taken  the  place  of  cast  iron  for  larger  reservoir  out- 


10 


lets.  For  small  reservoirs  one  of  the  cheapest  and  best  outlets 
is  made  of  sewer  pipe.  It  is  made  in  two-foot  lengths  which  are 
connected  with  cement  mortar  joints.  The  following  table  gives 
the  relative  prices  of  different  kinds  of  pipe,  in  San  Francisco,  in 
August,  1907.  The  prices  are  F.  O.  B.  except  on  the  sewer  pipe, 
which  is  F.  O.  B.  warehouse.  The  cast  pipe  is  sold  at  a  ton  rate, 
the  quotation  here  being  for  standard  pipe.  The  redwood  pipe  i.« 
made  with  different  styles  of  banding,  for  various  pressures  up  to 
300  feet,  the  quotation  here  being  for  pipe  good  for  100  feet  pres- 
sure. There  is  no  standard  weight  for  riveted  pipe,  the  cost  de- 
pending on  the  number  of  rivets,  weight  and  quality  of  steel  and 
thickness  of  metal  specified  for  a  given  case.  The  figures  given 
here  are  for  medium  weight  pipe,  suitable  for  reservoir  outlets, 
and  coated  with  asphalt.  The  price  is  very  unsettled  at  present. 

COST  OF  PIPE  PER  FOOT. 

Redwood      Vitrified  Common 
Size —  Cast  Iron.       Banded.         Sewer.       Black. 

4-inch $0.54  $0.275  •  $0.12  $0.51 

6-inch 79  -383  .18  -88 

8-inch 1.08  .485  .27  1.66 

10-inch 1.38  .613  .36  2.15 

12-inch 1.84  .743  45  3-35 


u 


Figure  2  shows  an  outlet  used  by  the  writer  for  a  small  reser- 
voir on  the  Montana  Experiment  Station  farm.  It  consists  of  a 
6-inch  sewer  pipe  built  into  a  vertical  box  at  the  upper  end.  The 
box  has  a  double  set  of  flash-boards  to  hold  the  water  at  any 
height  desired.  As  the  supply  in  this  case  comes  from  a  spring 
the  outlet  acts  also  as  a  wasteway.  Earth  may  be  packed  between 


-Tot 
.5/0,0  «> 


1  — 

lOJf 

=] 

=3 

ys 

<^u 

If'i- 

*» 

«  .c 

—  - 

^f/o-sh   Soar 

PLAN 

the  flash-boards  to  insure  water-tightness.  For  larger  reservoirs 
a  standard  waterworks  valve  in  the  upper  end  of  the  outlet  is  the 
best  device. 

The  width  of  an  earth  embankment  at  its  base  should  be  about 
five  times  its  height.  Thus  a  i6-foot  dam  to  hold  12  feet  of  water 
should  have  a  base  80  feet  wide.  The  usual  slope  is  two  horizontal 
to  one  vertical  for  both  faces.  The  top  width  of  the  above  dam 
should  be  at  least  12  feet. 


12 


The  best  material  for  an  earth  dam  is  a  mixture  of  gravel, 
sand  and  silt  or  clay.  The  writer  once  mixed  a  cubic  yard  of 
gravel,  half  a  yard  of  sand  and  one-quarter  yard  of  silt,  measured 
dry.  When  mixed  together  wet  the  volume  shrunk  to  one  and 
one-fifth  yards,  showing  that  the  sand  filled  the  spaces  in  the 
gravel,  and  the  silt  filled  in  between  the  sand  grains.  As  water 
is  required  to  effect  such  a  compacting  of  material,  dry  earth 
should  never  be  used  in  a  dam.  In  a  distributing  reservoir  for 
Ogden,  Utah,  built  by  the  writer  in  1892,  a  canal  (Fig.  i)  was  main- 
tained in  the  center  of  the  dam  until  the  flow  line  was  reached. 
Where  this  cannot  be  done  the  earth  should  be  put  on  in  layers  and 
sprinkled.  If  no  water  is  available,  it  is  advisable  to  put  off  build- 
ing until  rainy  weather.  As  the  material  is  brought  to  the  dam  it 
should  be  roughly  sorted,  all  cobbles  and  coarse  material  being 
dumped  near  the  outer  slope  and  the  finer  near  the  inner  side. 

The  water  slope  of  an  earth  dam  needs  to  be  protected  from 
wave  action.  This  is  sometimes  done  by  means  of  bunches  of 
willows  bound  with  wire  and  anchored  with  rocks.  In  other 
cases  a  wave  fence  is  built  by  driving  boards  in  vertically  and 
bracing  them  from  the  bank.  In  Colorado  a  barbed  wire  fence 
backed  with  straw  is  often  used.  But  these  are  all  makeshifts 
and  soon  decay.  The  best  protection  is  a  layer  of  coarse  gravel 
or  broken  rock  from  six  to  nine  inches  thick  overlaid  with  a  layer 
of  rock  as  large  as  one  man  can  handle.  These  paving  stones  are 
laid  like  shingles,  except  that  they  are  tipped  toward  the  embank- 
ment to  prevent  them  from  sliding  out. 

A  channel  must  be  provided  to  carry  the  water  past  the  dam 
when  the  reservoir  is  full ;  otherwise  it  will  flow  over  the  top  and 
destroy  the  dam.  More  earth  dams  have  been  damaged  in  this 
way  than  in  any  other.  Where  conditions  are  favorable  the  best 
wasteway  is  formed  by  grading  down  a  low  ridge  or  gap  near 
the  margin  of  the  reservoir  and  at  some  distance  from  the  end  of 
the  dam.  Often,  however,  a  canal  has  to  be  cut  or  a  flume  built 
along  the  hillside  and  around  one  end  of  the  dam.  This  canal  or 
flume  is  made  "V"  shaped  at  the  upper  end,  and  on  as  steep  a 
slope  as  the  material  will  stand  without  washing.  It  must  be 
large  enough  to  carry  all  the  water  that  is  ever  likely  to  flow  in 
the  stream  during  the  largest  flood. 

In  small  reservoirs  in  porous  formation,  it  frequently  pays  to 


For  further  information  on  earth  reservoirs  see  O.  E.  S.  Bull.  179,  on  Small 
Reservoirs  in  Wyoming,  Montana  and  South  Dakota,  by  F.  C.  Herrmann.  Also 
Earthen  Embankments  for  Storage  Reservoirs,  by  Samuel  Fortier,  Vol.  X,  Tran- 
sactions Canadian  Soc.  C.  E. 

13 


haul  clay  and  spread  it  over  the  bottom  and  up  the  sides.  It  is 
then  moistened  and  packed.  A  layer  of  gravel  spread  over  the 
clay  and  rammed  flush  is  very  effective.  If  the  reservoir  is  to  be 
used  only  for  irrigating,  it  may  be  used  for  a  time  as  a  feeding 
ground  for  sheep.  A  layer  of  clay,  when  .  moistened  and  mixed 
with  straw,  and  packed  by  the  feet  of  sheep,  will  make  a  good 
lining. 

THE  COST  OF  PUMPING  WATER  FOR  IRRIGATION. 

The  chief  items  of  expense  in  pumping  water  are  for  fuel,  at- 
tendance, repairs  and  fixed  charges.  The  latter  include  interest 
on  investment,  depreciation,  taxes  and  insurance,  and  vary  from  12 
per  cent  of  the  original  cost  of  the  plant  to  20  per  cent  per  annum, 
depending  both  on  the  skill  of  operation  and  the  grade  of  ma- 
chinery installed.  As  these  fixed  charges  must  be  met  whether 
the  plant  is  used  or  not,  they  form  a  large  part  of  the  total  cost 
of  pumping  in  cases  where  the  plant  is  operated  only  for  a  short 
time  each  season.  A  part  of  this  expense  is,  however,  properly 
chargeable  to  crop  insurance.  A  small  plant  will  insure  against 
the  total  failure  in  a  dry  year  of  valuable  crops,  and  in  some  cases 
may  save  the  life  of  trees  and  prevent  the  loss  of  years  of  toil. 
The  saving  of  one  crop  in  a  dry  year  may  pay  the  fixed  charges 
of  several  normal  years  many  times  over. 

In  gasoline  plants  with  gasoline  at  7^  cents  a  gallon,  the 
cost  for  fuel  alone  is  about  5  cents  per  acre-foot  raised  one  foot. 
If  the  water  has  to  be  raised  20  feet  and  two  acre-feet  are  used 
in  irrigation,  the  fuel  cost  for  the  season  would  be  $2  per  acre. 
Repairs  and  attendance  are  an  additional  charge.  Such  plants 
consume  about  one-eighth  gallon  of  gasoline  an  hour  for  each 
indicated  horse-power. 

In  motor  driven  plants,  with  electric  current  selling  for  two 
cents  per  kilowatt  hour,  the  cost  for  power  alone  is  about  6  cents 
per  foot  acre-foot,  or  20  per  cent  more  than  for  gasoline  plants. 
The  comparison  is  unfair,  however,  as  the  cost  for  attendance  and 
repairs  is  considerably  lower  than  for  gasoline  plants. 

In  steam  driven  plants  with  crude  oil  at  2  cents  a  gallon,  the 
cost  for  fuel  alone  is  about  3  cents  per  foot  acre-foot.  This  figure 
cannot  be  fairly  compared  with  those  for  gasoline  or  electric 
plants,  as  it  is  the  average  cost  for  a  number  of  large  plants  cost- 
ing $5,000  to  $50,000,  and  the  unit  cost  of  power  in  a  large  plant 
is  less  than  in  a  small  plant. 

For  further  particulars  as  to  the  cost  of  pumping  in  California  see  Mechanical 
Tests  of  Pumping  Plants  in  California,  by  J.  N.  Le  Conte  and  C.  E.  Tait,  in  O.  E.  S. 
Bull.  181. 

14 


FIRST  COST  OF  PUMPING  PLANTS. 

For  boring  wells  from  50  to  100  feet  deep  in  San  Joaquin 
Valley  the  current  price  per  foot,  including  casing,  is  $1.75  for 
12-inch,  $1.60  for  lo-inch  and  $1.50  for  8-inch  wells. 

Centrifugal  pumps  cost  about  $55  for  2-inch,  $62  for  2^-inch, 
$75  for  3-inch,  $100  for  4-inch,  $120  for  5-inch,  and  $150  for  6-inch 
sizes. 

Gasoline  engines  vary  considerably  in  price,  but  the  current 
average  prices  (1907)  are  about  as  follows:  $140  for  2  horse- 
power, $170  for  3  horse-power,  $250  for  4  horse-power,  $310  for 
5  horse-power,  $320  for  6  horse-power,  $425  for  8  horse-power  and 
$525  for  10  horse-power. 

Electric  motors  cost  $65  for  2  horse-power,  $75  for  3  horse- 
power, $83  for  5  horse-power,  $158  for  7^/2  horse-power  and  $236 
for  10  horse-power  motors. 

HOW  TO  BUILD  FARM  DITCHES. 

Laterals  should  be  laid  out  so  as  to  bring  water  to  the  high- 
est land  in  the  piece  to  be  irrigated,  and  should  follow  fence  or 
road  lines  as  far  as  possible.  As  even  a  small  ditch  occupies  a 


FIGURE  3 --SKETCH   OF   "v"   SCRAPER  OR   CROWDER 
15 


TVPlCflL    FORMS 

F~£1RM     PITCHEIS 


Mo. 2. 


Mo. 3. 


Another   form    of    No. -A. 


Mo.  -5 


Another    form     of 


FIGURE  4 

16 


strip  of  land  8  to  16  feet  wide,  it  is  evident  that  on  valuable  land 
it  will  pay  to  locate  laterals  with  care.  Where  possible  they 
should  be  g-iven  as  heavy  grade  as  the  material  will  stand  with- 
out washing,  as  smaller  laterals  will  then  suffice,  and  the  growth 
of  water  plants  will  be  less  rapid.  It  is  good  practice  to  make 
laterals  of  generous  size,  so  a  good  head  can  be  handled  without 
danger  of  breaking  over  the  banks,  and  so  that  a  moderate  growth 
of  weeds  will  not  entirely  choke  the  ditches. 

Several  forms  for  the  cross-section  of  a  farm  ditch  are  shown 
in  figure  4.  The  shallow  types  shown  are  preferable  to  deeper 
ditches  on  account  of  the  ease  of  construction.  Ditches  numbered 
i  and  2  are  made  with  a  14  and  16  inch  lister,  and  will  carry  up 
to  2.4  cubic  feet  per  second,  as  given  in  the  table  below.  Number 
3  is  made  by  enlarging  a  furrow  with  a  "V"  crowder,  such  as 
shown  in  figure  3.  Such  a  ditch  requires  no  hand  labor  in  finish- 
ing it,  but  if  it  is  necessary  to  back  the  water  up  on  the  banks  it 
will  leak  out  and  break  through  unless  the  loose  soil  thrown  out 
by  the  "V"  is  compacted  by  dragging. 

Number  4  is  about  the  smallest  ditch  that  can  conveniently 
be  made  with  teams  and  scrapers.  The  first  form  might  be  made 
with  an  elevating  grader.  The  rounded  form  of  section  shown  in 
the  second  form  of  numbers  4  and  5  results  naturally  from  the  use 
of  Fresno  scrapers  working  back  and  forth  across  the  ditch. 


FIGURE  4  A— USING  THE   "V"   CROWDER 


The  table  below  shows  the  capacities  of  the  ditches  illustrated, 
with  various  slopes.  The  flow  of  water  is  computed  for  clear 
channels  carefully  finished.  The  presence  of  weeds  or  trash  may 
reduce  the  flow  to  half  or  even  less.  Usually  a  velocity  of  about  2 
feet  per  second  is  as  high  as  permissible  to  avoid  scouring. 

Table  Giving  the   Mean  Velocity  and   Discharge  of   Ditches  with   Different   Grades. 

FARM  DITCH  NO.   1. 


FARM   DITCH   NO.    4. 


FARM  DITCH  NO.   5. 


Grade 

Mean  ve- 
locity in 
feet  per 
second. 

Discharge 

Inches 
per  rod. 

Feet  per 
100  feet. 

Feet  per 
mile. 

Cubic  feet 
per  second. 

Miner's 
Inches  un- 
der 6-inch 
pressure 
head. 

1-2 

3-4 
1 
1  1-4 
1  1-2 

2  1-2 
3 
3  1-2 

0.25 
.38 
.51 
.63 
.76 
1.01 
1.26 
1.51 
1.77 

13.33 
20.00 
26.67 
33.33 
40.00 
53.33 
66.67 
80.00 
93.33 

1.01 
1.23 
1.42 
1.59 
1.75 
2.04 
2.28 
2.50 
2.70 

0.67 
.81 
.93 
1.05 
1.16 
1.35 
1.50 
1.64 
1.78 

27 
32 
37 
42 
46 
54 
60 
66 
71 

FARM    DITCH    NO.    2. 

1-4 
1-2 
3-4 
1 
1  1-4 
1  1-2 
1  3-4 
2 
2  1-2 

0.13 
.25 
.38 
.51 
.63 
.76 
.88 
1.01 
1.26 

6.67 
13.33 
20.00 
26.67 
33.33 
40.00 
46.67 
53.33 
66.67 

0.82 
1.16 
1.42 
1.64 
1.84 
2.02 
2.18 
2.34 
2.61 

0.80 
1.00 
1.30 
1.50 
1.70 
1.80 
2.00 
2.10 
2.40 

30 
42 
52 
60 
67 
74 
80 
86 
96 

FARM   DITCH   NO.    3. 

1-8 
1-4 
1-2 
3-4 
1 
1  1-4 

0.06 
.13 
.25 
.38 
.51 
.63 

8.33 
6.67 
13.33 
20.00 
26.67 
33.33 

0.79 
1.13 
1.60 
1.97 
2.28 
2.57 

2.08                      83 
3.00                    119 
4.20                    168 
5.20         .           207 
6.00                    239 
6.80                    270 

1-16 

0.03 

1.58 

0.84 

4.20 

168 

1-8 

.06 

3.33 

1.08 

5.40 

216 

1-4 

.13 

6.67 

1.54 

7.70 

308 

3-8 

.19 

10.00 

1.89 

9.50 

378 

1-2 

.25 

13.33 

2.20 

11.00 

440 

5-8 

.31 

16.67 

2.45 

12.20 

490 

3-4 

.38 

20.00 

2.69 

13.40 

538 

1-16 

0.08 

1.67 

1.03 

11.6 

464 

1-8 

.06 

3.33 

1.48 

16.7 

666 

3-16 

.09 

5.00 

1.82 

20.5 

819 

1-4 

.13 

6.67 

2.11 

23.7 

950 

5-16 

.16 

8733 

2.35 

26.4 

1.058 

3-8 

.19 

10.00 

2.58 

28.0 

1,121 

7-16 

.22 

11.67 

2.80 

30.5 

1,260   ' 

18 


HOW  TO  PREPARE  LAND  FOR  IRRIGATION. 

Nothing  is  more  certain  in  irrigation  practice  than  that 
thorough  preparation  of  land  for  irrigation  pays.  Not  only  is  it 
easier  to  irrigate  land  well  prepared,  but  the  crop  is  larger,  and 
more  easily  handled,  and  the  fine  appearance  of  such  lands  makes 
them  far  more  valuable. 

Sage  brush,  which  on  large  areas  of  new  land  is  the  only  kind 
of  vegetation  found,  is  most  easily  and  cheaply  removed  by  drag- 
ging with  a  rail,  raking  and  burning.  The  cost  of  clearing  by  this 
method  is  about  $2.50  per  acre.  One  advantage  of  the  method  is 
that  the  rail  takes  off  the  high  places,  and  aids  materially  in  the 
smoothing  that  is  to  follow.  Sage  brush  is  easily  drowned  by 
irrigation,  and  is  then  readily  raked  without  railing. 


THE   SHUART   GRADER,    NO.    I 
FIGURE   5 

The  grading  or  smoothing  of  the  surface  depends  on  the 
method  of  irrigation  to  be  used.  In  any  case,  the  obvious  humps 
must  be  scraped  off  and  the  holes  filled  up  to  some  extent.  The 
Fresno  or  Stockton  scraper  is  the  most  commonly  used  implement 
for  the  purpose.  These  are  made  in  three  sizes,  for  two,  three  or 
four  horses.  The  retail  price  in  July,  1907,  at  Fresno,  California, 
was:  For  two-horse,  3*/2-foot  cut,  $20;  for  three-horse,  4-foot  cut, 
$21,  and  for  the  four-horse  size,  cutting  5  feet,  $22.50. 

19 


FIGURE  6 — AN   ADJUSTABLE   PLANER 

The  Shuart  grader  shown  in  figure  5  is  also  extensively  used, 
especially  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  States.  The  price  at  the  factory 
in  Ohio  is  about  $40. 

An  adjustable  planer  is  shown  in  figure  6,  and  several  kinds 
of  home-made  graders,  levelers  and  smoothers,  as  they  are  vari- 
ously called,  are  described  in  O.  E.  S.  Bull.  145. 

For  furrow  irrigation  head  ditches  should  be  put  in  across  the 
slope  from  300  to  600  feet  apart.  Every  furrow  should  have  a 
continuous  though  not  necessarily  uniform  fall  for  its  entire 
length,  and  the  leveling  of  land  must  proceed  far  enough  to  accom- 
plish this  end.  With  such  crops  as  sugar  beets  it  is  essential  to 
confine  the  water  to  the  furrows,  as  flooding  kills  the  young  plants. 
A  convenient  method  for  running  water  into  furrows  from  head 
laterals  is  to  make  small  wooden  pipe  by  nailing  four  pieces  of 
lath  together,  and  setting  them  into- .the  lateral  bank,  one  for  each 
two  furrows.  Figure  7  shows  a  home-made  device  much  used  in 
Yakima  Valley. 

The  favorite  layout  for  alfalfa  irrigation  is  the  check  system, 
adapted  to  flat  slopes  and  large  irrigating  heads.  The  most  suc- 
cessful size  for  checks  is  about  three-quarters  of  an  acre  each. 
Except  where  an  entire  district  is  known  to  have  a  definite  slope, 
it  is  necessary  to  run  levels  over  the  field  and  locate  the  check 
levees  accordingly.  Where  the  land  is  rather  rough  or  irregularly 
sloping,  levees  should  be  built  along  the  natural  contours,  making 
the  shape  of  the  checks  irregular.  The  distance  between  levees 
going  down  the  slope  is  governed  by  the  fall,  and  should  be  such 
that  each  check  is  3  to  6  inches  lower  than  the  one  above  it. 

21 


MAKING   CHECK-LEVEE    WIT 


The  floor  of  each  check  should  be  level,  the  earth  for  the 
levees  being  all  borrowed  from  the  high  side  of  the  check.  Water 
should  be  supplied  to  each  check  directly  from  a  ditch,  and  not 
be  run  from  one  check  into  another,  as  the  latter  practice  makes 
the  even  distribution  of  water  impossible.  Levees  should  be  very 
broad,  so  the  machinery  can  be  run  over  them  with  ease,  and  in 


FLOODING   A   CHECK.      NEW  ALFALFA   IN   CENTRAL   CALIFORNIA 


most  soils  the  alfalfa  will  completely  cover  them.  That  being  the 
case  there  is  no  objection  to  making  them  12  or  14  feet  broad  at 
the  base.  The  Fresno  or  Stockton  scraper  is  the  implement  most 
in  favor  for  preparing  checks. 

In  many  cases  it  is  cheaper  to  make  use  of  the  natural  slope, 
irrigating  down  the  slope  in  long  lands.  To  insure  even  distribu- 
tion the  lands  must  be  level  across,  and  borders  are  required  at  the 
sides  to  confine  the  water.  The  principal  disadvantage  in  the 
method  is  the  flooding  of  the  lower  end  of  the  field  with  waste 


-3' 


FIGURE  7 

water  from  the  upper  end.  To  avoid  this  there  should  always  be 
a  waste  ditch  at  the  lower  end,  and  a  gate  into  it  through  the 
lower  levee.  It  is  common  practice  to  make  the  lands  50  to  100 
'feet  wide,  and  40  to  So  rods  long.  The  smaller  lands  are  cheaper 


23 


to    grade    and    easier    to    irrigate.     The    large    head    required    for 
border  irrigation  makes  large  laterals  necessary. 

In  some  parts  of  California  orchards  are  irrigated  by  running 
ridges  between  the  rows,  making  a  square  check  for  each  tree. 
These  basins  are  filled  from  a  system  of  laterals  as  in  ordinary 
check  irrigation,  or  else  the  water  is  run  into  the  upper  basin  of 
a  row,  and  allowed  to  pass  down  the  slope  from  one  basin  to  the 
next  in  a  zig-zag  direction  through  openings  in  the  levees  left  for 
that  purpose. 


SOME  HINTS  ON  IRRIGATING  DIFFERENT  CROPS. 

Alfalfa  is  irrigated  by  means  of  borders  and  checks  in  Cali- 
fornia, checks  in  Oregon,  and  furrows  in  Washington.  Even  in 
such  diverse  methods  there  are  features  common  to  all.  Young 
alfalfa  is  a  very  tender  plant,  and  its  early  treatment  must  be  such 
as  to  avoid  caking  the  surface  soil,  too  little  or  too  much  soil 
moisture,,  and  too  rank  a  growth  of  weeds.  Irrigating  very  young 
alfalfa  is  ruinous  in  most  soils.  It  must  be  seeded  when  rains  or 
irrigation  have  supplied  enough  moisture  to  the  soil  to  support 
the  plant  till  it  shades  the  ground.  In  Washington  and  Oregon 
a  nurse  crop  is  often  used  to  advantage. 

The  best  rule  is  to  irrigate  alfalfa  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow 
no  breaks  in  its  steady  growth.  In  some  places  this  is  best  ac- 
complished by  irrigating  as  late  as  possible  before  cutting,  and  not 
after  cutting.  Where  the  weather  is  very  hot  newly  cut  alfalfa 
may  be  scalded  if  flooded,  and  some  soils  will  bake  very  hard  if 
watered  when  the  soil  is  so  little  shaded.  In  other  places  it  is  the 
universal  practice  to  irrigate  after  cutting. 

The  important  point  in  irrigating  beets  is  to  have  the  land 
laid  out  with  enough  care  so  that  no  water  will  leave  the  furrows. 
Caking  of  the  surface  chokes  the  beet  even  after  it  is  half  grown, 
and  will  kill  young  plants.  Caking  may  be  largely  prevented  by 
using  a  small  stream  in  a  deep  furrow.  The  usual  practice  is  to 
turn  5  to  10  miner's  inches  into  each  shallow  furrow,  and  to  as- 
sume the  irrigation  complete  after  one  or  two  hours  if  the  stream 
has  reached  the  lower  end.  A  better  plan,  in  suitable  soil,  is  to 
turn  in  less  than  one  miner's  inch,  and  permit  it  to  run  12  to  24 
hours.  Deep  cultivation  between  the  rows  is  to  be  recommended, 
both  in  order  to  soak  the  water  deeper  into  the  ground  and  to  give 
the  beet  room  to  expand  laterally.  In  some  porous  soils  it  is  an 
aid  to  irrigation  to  drag  a  log  through  the  furrows  before  applying 

24 


water,  to  compact  the  sides  and  bottom.  Longer  furrows  can  then 
be  used. 

The  same  general  rules  apply  to  the  irrigation  of  potatoes  and 
other  root  crops.  The  best  potatoes  are  raised  from  seed  grown 
on  unirrigated  land.  Ideal  moisture  conditions  are  attained  when 
the  moisture  around  the  roots  of  the  potato  is  gradually  increased 
until  the  plant  blooms  and  the  tubers  are  formed,  and  is  then  as 
gradually  diminished  until  the  crop  is  harvested.  This  ideal  may 
be  approached  by  skillful  irrigation  and  thorough  cultivation. 

In  irrigating  vineyards  as  little  water  should  be  used  as  will 
produce  normal  healthy  growth.  Water  should  only  be  applied 
when  persistent  cultivation  fails  to  conserve  sufficient  moisture  in 
the  soil.  Irrigation  is  usually  required  for  young  vines  in  their 
first  year  of  growth,  and  in  later  years  when  the  mature  vines 
yield  heavy  crops,  spring  irrigations  are  beneficial.  The  furrow 
method  is  recommended. 

Orchards*  should  not  be.  set  in  any  but  deep  and  fertile  soils, 
and  in  making  suggestions  as  to  orchard  irrigation,  such  soil  is 
assumed.  The  object  of  the  orchardist  should  be  to  train  the  roots 
outward  and  downward,  and  this  can  be  done  by  proper  irriga- 
tion. In  all  warm  localities  the  upper  six  inches  or  more  of  the 
soil  should  be  kept  as  a  dust  mulch.  Roots  that  are  lured  into 
this  layer  by  the  winter  rains  will  later  perish  by  drought.  Hence 
the  only  proper  way  to  irrigate  is  to  apply  the  water  in  deep  fur- 
rows with  a  considerable  interval  between  irrigations,  and  to  cul- 
tivate deep  and  often.  Figure  9  shows  the  substantial  sort  of 
head  flumes  used  in  Southern  California. 

WAYS    AND    MEANS    OF    CHECKING    THE    WASTE    OF 

WATER. 

Some  horses  should  not  have  free  access  to  the  grain  bin,  and 
some  farmers  should  not  be  permitted  to  take  all  the  water  they 
want  from  a  canal.  The  most  effective  way  to  reduce  the  waste 
of  water  is  to  measure  each  man's  share,  and  have  each  man  pay 
only  for  what  he  receives. 

Another  loss  that  is  often  considerable  is  due  to  seepage  in 
the  feed  ditch  from  the  main  canal  to  the  individual  field.  Under 
the  head  of  "canal  linings"  some  hints  are  given  as  to  the  best 
method  of  lessening  this  loss. 


*For  further  information  see  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  263,  by  Samuel  Fortier,  on 
Practical  Information  for  Beginners  in  Irrigation.  Also  O.  E.  S.  Bull.  145,  issued  in 
co-operation  with  the  State  of  California. 

25 


Other  losses  of  water  are  due  to  the  farmers'  inability  prop- 
erly to  prepare  the  surface,  or  to  his  carelessness  in  using  water. 
Such  waste  usually  entails  damage  to  the  soil  and  decreased 
yields. 

Again  the  majority  of  irrigators  permit  the  greater  part  of 
the  water  they  apply  to  crops  to  pass  off  into  the  atmosphere 
without  any  benefit  to  the  crop,  owing  to  their  failure  to  cultivate. 
Frequent  light  irrigations  applied  to  the  surface  without  being 
followed  by  the  cultivator,  whenever  it  is  practicable  to  cultivate, 
are  of  little  value.  In  the  more  valuable  crops  of  the  Pacific 
Coast,  such  as  oranges,  grapes,  and  vegetables,  a  great  saving 
of  water  may  be  effected  by  running  small  streams  in  deep  fur- 
rows until  the  second  and  third  foot  of  soil  are  thoroughly  mois- 
tened, and  then  to  cultivate  the  surface  to  a  depth  of  about  six 
inches.  Experiments  by  the  writer  show  that  well  pulverized  dry 
soil  if  sufficiently  thick  is  a  complete  protection  to  the  moisture 
beneath.  The  diagram  in  figure  8  shows  the  effect  of  mulches  of 
different  thicknesses  on  evaporation  from  an  orchard  soil.* 


*See   Evaporation   Losses   in   Irrigation,    and   Water   Requirement  of   Crops,    by 
Samuel  Fortier,  O.  E.  S.  Bull.  177. 


FIGURE  8 — SHOWING   THE   DECREASE  IN  EVAPORATION  DUE  TO   SOIL   MULCHES  OF 
DIFFERENT   THICKNESSES 


CANAL  LININGS. 

A  large  number  of  measurements  made  by  the  Irrigation  and 
Drainage  branch  of  the  United  States  Office  of  Experiment  Sta- 
tions show  that  about  one  third  of  the  total  amount  of  water 
diverted  for  irrigation  purposes  is  lost  by  seepage  from  earthen 
channels.  This  loss  may  be  largely  prevented  by  linings  of 
various  kinds. 

Cement  concrete  from  2  to  3  inches  thick  made  of  one  part 
cement,  two  sand  and  four  gravel  is  the  most  durable  and 
efficient  lining,  but  also  the  most  expensive.  Before  applying  the 
concrete,  water  is  run  in  the  ditch  for  a  time  to  settle  the  banks. 
The  channel  is  then  carefully  trimmed  to  an  even  section,  and  the 
concrete  is  applied  and  finished  to  conform  to  a  wooden  template. 
It  is  mixed  of  such  a  consistency  that  it  can  be  applied  Irke  plaster. 

On  some  canals  in  Southern  California  cement  mortar  from 
one-half  to  one  inch  thick,  composed  of  one  part  cement  to  four 
of  sand  and  fine  gravel  has  been  used. 

A  heavy  grade  of  crude  oil  containing  a  high  percentage  of 
asphalt  promises  to  be  extensively  used  in  canal  linings.  It  is 
not  so  water-tight  as  either  concrete  or  mortar,  but  it  is  less  ex- 
pensive, and  it  also  prevents  the  growth  of  weeds  and  tends  to 
prevent  damage  from  gophers. 

Clay  puddle,  particularly  where  the. clay  contains  a  good  deal 
of  alkali  makes  a  fairly  good  lining.  The  cost  depends  chiefly  on 
the  length  of  haul  for  clay.  Where  it  is  found  along  the  ditch  it 
sometimes  needs  only  to  be  puddled  by  the  feet  of  animals. 
Where  it  has  to  be  hauled  the  cost  will  often  run  to  $i  a  cubic 
yard. 

The  following  table*  gives  the  relative  efficiencies  and  cost  of 
the  .four  linings  just  described.The  price  of  cement  is  taken  at 
$2.75  per  barrel,  and  of  crude  oil  at  85  cents  per  barrel  of  42 
gallons : 

Per  cent  Total  cost 

Kind  of  Lining —  leakage  saved.  per  square  ft. 

Cement  concrete  3  inches  thick 90  8          cents 

Cement  mortar  ^  inches  thick 70  3^      cents 

Heavy  oil,  3  2-3  gal.  per  square  yard.  50  I   1-5  cents 

Heavy  oil,  2^/2  gal.  per  square  yard.  30  ^      cents 

Clay  puddle,  4  inches  thick   50  %  to  I  1-5  cts 


*See  Bull.  188,  Cal.  Exp.  S'ta.,  Linings  for  Ditches  and  Reservoirs,  by  Professors 
Mead  and  Etcheverry. 

27 


FIGURED 


CEMKNT   AND   CONCRETE   HEAD-FLUMES  USED   IN 
ORCHARD   IRRIGATION. 


HOW  TO  DRAIN  THE  WET  PORTIONS  OF  AN  IRRI- 
GATED FARM. 

Drainage  may  not  be  required  where  water  is  skillfully  and 
economically  used,  as  there  is  then  much  less  water  to  remove 
from  irrigated  land.  In  many  cases,  however,  it  is  impossible  to 
prevent  the  accumulation  of  water  in  low  places.  The  condition 
of  such  low  places  should  be  carefully  watched  during  the  early 
stages  of  irrigation  in  any  locality,  and  preventive  measures 
adopted  at  the  proper  time.  The  first  remedy  to  apply  is  to  exer- 
cise care  in  the  use  of  water.  If  this  will  not  suffice,  all  natural 
ravines  and  draws  should  be  cleaned  out,  and  a  ditch  dug  to  carry 
off  the  surplus.  Whenever  irrigation  ditches  cross  low  places  by 
means  of  levees,  pipes  should  be  laid  underneath  to  carry  away 
any  water  that  would  otherwise  collect  on  the  upper  side.  Their 
omission  is  one  of  the  commonest  errors. 

Where  there  are  no  natural  ravines,  drain  ditches  must  be 
dug  of  the  requisite  depth.  Unless  they  are  cleaned  out  at  reg- 
ular intervals  they  will  be  choked  with  weeds  and  earth  sliding 
in  from  the  banks.  For  this  reason  open  drains  are  often  a 
nuisance,  and  it  is  better  practice  to  lay  drain  tile. 

The  cost  of  drain  tile  in  San  Francisco  (August,  1907)  in  car 
lots  was  as  follows : 

Feet  in  car  of 
Size  Inside.  Weight  per  Foot.    Price  per  Foot.    30,000  Ibs. 

Four  inches   5^  pounds  4  cents  5,460  feet 

Five   inches    8       pounds  6  cents  3,75o  feet 

Six  inches    10       pounds  9  cents  3,000  feet 

Eight  inches    18       pounds  15  cents  1,670  feet 

Ten  inches   20       pounds  25  cents  1,43°  feet 

These  prices  are  high,  even  for  the  Pacific  Coast.  On  account 
of  the  cost  of  tile,  it  is  well  to  lay  them  in  deep  trenches.  On  irri- 
gated lands  tile  should  be  laid  from  4^  to  5  feet  deep.  Deep-laid 
tile  not  only  serve  a  larger  area,  but  the  roots  of  trees  and  vines 
are  less  liable  to  clog  them. 

The  belief  is  common  that  the  rise  of  ground  water  is  due  to 
seepage  from  irrigation  channels.  But  the  chief  cause,  as  shown 
by  recent  experiments  by  the  writer  is  the  irrigation  of  lands  at 
higher  levels.  With  this  in  mind,  it  is  often  possible  to  intercept 
this  seepage  by  a  ditch  or  tile  drain. 

Where  land  is  valuable,  and  where  there  are  no  natural  out- 
lets for  drains,  it  will  prove  a  good  investment  to  drain  into  a 

29 


sump,  and  pump  the  water  out  into  surface  canals.  The  sump 
should  be  at  least  7  feet  deep,  and  located  on  the  lowest  part  of 
the  tract.  The  most  convenient  power  to  use  -is  an  electric 
motor.  The  cost  of  running  a  3  horse-power  motor  driving  a 
No.  3  centrifugal  pump  for  six  months,  running  continuously,  will 
be  about  $175,  including  current  and  operating  expenses.  This 
would  drain  from  40  to  80  acres  of  land  with  lines  of  tile  ex- 
tended out  from  the  sump  to  collect  the  water. 


UNITS  OF  MEASUREMENT  OF  WATER. 

The  quantity  of  water  used  for  irrigating  an  ordinary  farm 
is  so  large  that  it  is  convenient  to  have  a  large  unit  of  measure- 
ment. The  acre-foot  is  such  a  unit,  and  is  the  amount  of  water 
that  will  cover  one  acre  to  a  depth  of  one  foot.  It  is  convenient 
to  use,  as  one  can  see  at  a  glance  that  one  acre-foot  of  water  will 
irrigate  two  acres  six  inches  deep,  three  acres  four  inches  deep, 
etc.  In  old  well  developed  irrigated  sections  water  is  commonly 
sold  by  the  acre-foot. 

But  water  can  very  seldom  be  measured  directly  in  acre-feet, 
and  hence  some  unit  for  the  rate  of  flow  must  be  used.  The  cubic 
foot  per  second  is  a  particularly  good  unit,  since  one  cubic  foot 
per  second  will  deliver  very  closely  two  acre-feet  a  day  (24  hours). 
It  is  also  the  unit  used  in  all  stream  measurements. 

For  pumping,  the  gallon  per  minute  is  used,  450  gallons  per 
minute  being  equal  to  one  cubic  foot  per  second. 

The  miner's  inch  is  an  indefinite  unit,  depending  on  the  head 
of  water  above  the  orifice.  For  correct  measurement  the  head 
should  be  taken  to  the  center  of  the  orifice  in  every  case.  The 
miner's  inch  under  four-inch  pressure  is  about  1-50  cubic  foot  pei 
second,  and  is  so  fixed  by  statute  in  Washington.  Under  six-inch 
pressure  the  inch  is  1-40  cubic  foot  per  second,  nearly. 


The  equivalents  of  the  various  units  are  given  below  for  ref- 
erence : 

i  acre  foot=43,56o  cubic  feet. 

i  acre  foot=325,85o  gallons. 

I  cubic  foot  per  second— 450  gallons  per  minute. 

i  cubic  foot  per  second=i  acre-foot  in  12  hours. 

i  cubic  foot  per  second=2  acre-feet  per  day. 

i  cubic  foot  per  second=:4O  miner's  ins.  under  6-in.  pressure. 

i  cubic  foot  per  second=i  acre-inch  per  hour. 

i  miner's  inch  under  4-inch  pressure^i  acre-foot  in  25  days. 

i  miner's  inch  under  6-inch  pressure^!  acre-foot  in  20  days. 

i  horse-power=55o  pounds  raised  i  foot  per  second. 

i  kilowatt=i   1-3  horse-power. 


LIST   OF   BULLETINS 

Bulletin  No.  i. — The  Butte  County  Canal,  Sacramento  Valley,  California 

Bulletin  No.  2. — The  San  Luis  Valley,  Colorado. 

Bulletin  No    3. — The    Modesto   and    Turlock    Irrigation    Districts,    San 

Joaquin  Valley,  California. 
Bulletin  No.  4. — Guide  to  Irrigation  Practice  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

For  copies  of  these  bulletins,  apply  to  L.  G.  Sinnard,  Secretary 
Publicity  Committee,  Room  946  Flood  Building,  San  Francisco, 
California,  or  to  members  of  the  Committee. 

In  quantities  of  1000  or  more  copies,  Bulletin  No.  4  will  be  fur- 
nished at  actual  cost  of  publication,  to  Irrigation  Districts  and  to 
canal  and  land  companies,  for  distribution  among  irrigators. 


BOLTE   &  BRADEN   CO.,   PRINTERS,   SAN   FRANCISCO 


